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Unravelling the true details of 1066

The year 1066 is one of the most dramatic and transformative years in English history. It’s probably the battle that most British people know about. Having said that, there is a lot of debate and misinformation about what happened that year. In 2026-27 the 70m long Bayeux tapestry will be on display at the British Museum, their panels famously depicting the history of the Norman conquest of England.The events of 1066 began with the death of King Edward the Confessor, a monarch revered for his piety but criticized for leaving no clear heir. His death on 5 January triggered a scramble for the English throne, with multiple claimants asserting their rights in a contest that would culminate in three major battles and two full-scale invasions.Harold Godwinson, the powerful Earl of Wessex, was swiftly crowned king but his coronation was far from universally accepted. Across the North Sea, Harald Hardrada, the formidable King of Norway, believed he had a legitimate claim based on an earlier agreement between monarchs. Meanwhile, in Normandy, Duke William prepared his own invasion, asserting that Harold had once sworn an oath to support William’s succession, a moment that was later immortalized in thread and linen.The first invasion came from the north. On the 18 September 1066 Hardrada sailed up the River Humber with a fleet of around 300 ships, joined by Harold’s estranged brother, Tostig Godwinson. Their forces landed in Yorkshire and quickly overwhelmed the local earls at the Battle of Fulford on 20 September. Harold Godwinson responded with astonishing speed, marching his army nearly 200 miles north in less than a week. On 25 September, he met the Norse invaders at Stamford Bridge.The battle was fierce and decisive. Hardrada’s forces, caught off guard and without their full armour, were defeated. Hardrada and Tostig were killed, and the remnants of the Norse army retreated with only a fraction of their original fleet. Harold had secured a stunning victory—but his triumph was short-lived. Even as the English celebrated, William of Normandy was preparing to strike.Just days after Stamford Bridge, William landed at Pevensey on 28 September with a well-equipped invasion force. His army included infantry, cavalry, and archers—a tactical diversity that would prove crucial in the battles to come. Harold, still recovering from his northern campaign, rushed south to confront the Normans. On 14 October, the two armies met near Hastings, on the slopes of Senlac Hill, a high point where the town of Battle and Battle Abbey now stand.The English formed a formidable shield wall, a tactic that had served them well in previous battles. Initially, they repelled Norman assaults. But William’s forces employed a clever strategy. They feigned retreats that lured English soldiers from their defensive position, breaking the cohesion of the shield wall. As the day wore on, the tide turned. Harold was killed, traditionally believed to be struck by an arrow to the eye, though this detail remains debated to this day. With their king dead and their formation shattered, the English army collapsed. William had triumphed, but his path to the throne was not yet complete.The Bayeux Tapestry, that depicts the events, was created in the 1070s. It was likely to have been commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux, William’s half-brother. It famously shows a figure labelled “Harold” struck in the eye by an arrow, followed by another figure being cut down by a sword—leading to debate over how Harold actually died.Some historians argue the arrow was added later, and that Harold may have died by sword. Another common myth is that William was crowned immediately after Hastings. In reality, he had to secure London and negotiate with the remaining English nobility. His coronation took place on Christmas Day, 1066. William’s assertion of legitimacy was not universally accepted either. Many English nobles resisted, and rebellions continued for years after his coronation.The Norman victory marked the beginning of profound changes in England. Norman French became the language of the elite, influencing English vocabulary and legal terminology. Castles such as the Tower of London began to dot the landscape, asserting Norman dominance. William redistributed land to his followers, replacing Anglo-Saxon nobility with Norman lords. Over time, Anglo-Saxon and Norman traditions blended, shaping the medieval English identity.The invasions of 1066 were not merely military campaigns, they were contests of legitimacy, memory, and narrative. The battles were brutal, the stakes existential, and the consequences enduring. As we look back nearly a thousand years later, the Bayeux Tapestry reminds us that history is often stitched by the victors, but the threads of truth remain for those willing to unravel them.Dr James Williams is an emeritus reader in science education and communication at Sussex university

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